If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. [22] The popes could grant dispensations to institutions or individuals, exempting them from certain provisions of canon law. What did the Protestant Reformation bring an end to? In the first half of the 16th century, the enormous PolishLithuanian Commonwealth was a country of many religions and Churches, including: Roman Catholics, Byzantine Orthodox, Armenian Oriental Orthodox, Ashkenazi Jews, Karaites, and Sunni Muslims. Ultimately, since Calvin and Luther disagreed strongly on certain matters of theology (such as double-predestination and Holy Communion), the relationship between Lutherans and Calvinists was one of conflict. [87] He started his lectures on Biblical texts at the Wittenberg University in 1513. [139] He married secretly and, along with ten other clergymen, approached the bishop of Constance to sanction clerical marriage even though they knew that the bishop had no choice but to reject their petition. The End (of the Reformation) Is Coming | Adventist Review [94] Deeply involved in Italian politics, Pope Leo X (r.15131521) remained uninterested in Luther's case. Executions ceased in 1661 when King Charles II explicitly forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism. [note 18][117] Until the mid-16th century, Reformation literature was published at greater levels in cities where printing markets were more competitive, making these cities more likely to adopt the new theologies. The Reformation did not receive overt state support until 1525, although it was only due to the protection of Elector Frederick the Wise (who had a strange dream the night prior to 31 October 1517) . Divergent work attitudes of Protestant and Catholics. Luther compared the physical presence of the Body and Blood of Christ in the Eucharist to the heating of a piece of iron that changes its physical features. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. [citation needed]. In Sweden, the Reformation was spearheaded by Gustav Vasa, elected king in 1523, with major contributions by Olaus Petri, a Swedish clergyman. As the sale of certificates of papal indulgences had been a well-established method of fund raising, he proclaimed the papal bull Sacrosanctis announcing new indulgences and suspending the promotion of previous ones in 1515. However, in the city of Dublin the Reformation took hold under the auspices of George Browne, Archbishop of Dublin. This document was. They read of Luther's translation of the New Testament, and offered the Eucharist to the laity in both kinds. The spread of Protestantism in the country was assisted by its large ethnic German minority, which could understand and translate the writings of Martin Luther. [64] The erudite Dutch Humanist Erasmus (d. 1536) completed a critical edition of the New Testament, and his new Latin translation challenged the scriptural basis for some Catholic dogmas and practices. His German manifesto To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation associated the papacy with the Antichrist, and described the official Church as "the worst whorehouse of all whorehouses" in reference to the huge amount of cash flowing from Germany to the Roman Curia in the form of fees. Updated on January 10, 2020 The Reformation was a split in the Latin Christian church instigated by Luther in 1517 and evolved by many others over the next decadea campaign that created and introduced a new approach to Christian faith called ' Protestantism .' However, a number of factors complicated the adoption of the religious innovations in Ireland; the majority of the population there adhered to the Catholic Church. This view was certainly true in Italy, the birthplace of the Renaissance. In this act, Protestants denounced the Catholic Mass in placards that appeared across France, even reaching the royal apartments. As an experimental approach to reduce the caseload in Normandy, a special court just for the trial of heretics was established in 1545 in the Parlement de Rouen. In the end, while the Reformation emphasis on Protestants reading the Scriptures was one factor in the development of literacy, the impact of printing itself, the wider availability of printed works at a cheaper price, and the increasing focus on education and learning as key factors in obtaining a lucrative post, were also significant contributory factors. What were the 3 causes of the Reformation? Despite this, Lollard communities survived in East Anglia, Kent, the valley of the Thames River and the Midlands. Known as Lollards, Wycliffe's followers adopted a more radical position, demanding that the Church should renounce endowments and abandon clerical celibacy. Melanchthon consolidated Luther's thoughts into a coherent theological work titled Loci communes ("Common Places") that was first published in 1521. [note 3][36][37], As princes of the Papal States in Italy, the popes were deeply involved in the power struggles of the peninsula. [122], Statistical analysis indicates a significant positive correlation between the presence of a printing press in a city and the adoption of Reformation. Answer and. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on one hand and Catholicism on the other. The students celebrated the burning of the papal bull with a parade where they also burnt a papal tiara. It was convoked by Pope Julius II in 1512 in response to attempts by the French king Louis XI (r.14981515) to revive conciliarism with the support of a group of cardinals. In many parts of Europe, thousands of Jews fell victim to anti-semitic pogroms, as irrational rumours accused them of spreading the pandemic by well poisoning. Printing, the discovery of the New World, and Vasco da Gama's navigation of the Cape of Good Hope also contributed to its end. He stated that priests could not be viewed as a special cast but only servants of the community hence they became called ministers from the Latin word for servant. [80], Pope Leo X (r.15131521) decided to complete the construction of the new St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. 270286. [120] They denied the monopolies of the official Church and took advantage of popular anticlericalism. Additionally, the Orthodox also sought to join the Catholic Church (accomplished in the Union of Brze [Brest]); however, this union failed to achieve a lasting, permanent, and complete union of the Catholics and Orthodox in the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. The separation of the Church of England from Rome under Henry VIII, beginning in 1529 and completed in 1537, brought England alongside this broad Reformation movement. News June 20, 2023 Americas: States must end racist treatment of Haitian asylum seekers. [146] Although the surviving proportion of the European population that rebelled against Catholic, Lutheran and Zwinglian churches was small, Radical Reformers wrote profusely and the literature on the Radical Reformation is disproportionately large, partly as a result of the proliferation of the Radical Reformation teachings in the United States. Protestantism - English Reformation, Lollardy, Lutheranism, and Mazzolini's approach first frightened Luther but he soon realised that only a fundamental reform could put an end to the sale indulgences that he regarded as an abuse. But compared to the bloody and chaotic state of affairs in contemporary France, it was relatively successful, in part because Queen Elizabeth lived so long, until the Puritan Revolution or English Civil War in the seventeenth century. By 1530, over 10,000 publications are known, with a total of ten million copies. The traditional endpoint for the English Reformation is the reign of Elizabeth I which lasted from 1558 to 1603. Christians should be exhorted to seek earnestly to follow Christ, their Head, through penalties, deaths, hells. When King Henry VIII first created the Church of England, there was not any large-scale opposition. Giorgio Biandrata, Bernardino Ochino, Giovanni Alciato, Giovanni Battista Cetis, Fausto Sozzini, Francesco Stancaro and Giovanni Valentino Gentile), who propagated Nontrinitarianism there and were chief instigators of the movement of Polish Brethren. [7] These indicated a widespread belief in an intermediate place between Hell and Heaven known as the Purgatory because prayers for those who had been damned to Hell or gone to Heaven would have been useless. This increased papal income as the new bishops, abbots, and other high-ranking clerics paid a fee for their letter of appointment and ceded to the papacy one-third of the income they earned in the first year in their new office. The pace of the Reformation proved unstoppable by 1520. The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the formation of transnational advocacy movements. These were monastic communities that returned to the strict interpretation of their order's monastic rule. English Reformation - Wikipedia Among the most important Protestants of the Commonwealth were Mikoaj Rej, Marcin Czechowic, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski and Symon Budny. What was the main religion in Italy in the 1500s? Such strong measures only fanned the flames of protest, however. In the early 16th century, Spain had a different political and cultural milieu from its Western and Central European neighbours in several respects, which affected the mentality and the reaction of the nation towards the Reformation. The majority of the population did not . End of the Renaissance . During this long period of stable Protestant rule, the Anglican church became entrenched in England and with the monarchy, completing the transfer of . England had already given rise to the Lollard movement of John Wycliffe, which played an important part in inspiring the Hussites in Bohemia. While the Anabaptist movement enjoyed popularity in the region in the early decades of the Reformation, Calvinism, in the form of the Dutch Reformed Church, became the dominant Protestant faith in the country from the 1560s onward. Germany was home to the greatest number of Protestant reformers. Reformation Day | Date, History, & Observances | Britannica Most religious orders, such as the Cistercians, Franciscans, Dominicans, and Teutonic Knights, were centralised international organizations. [66] They were closely associated with the devotio moderna, a new method of Catholic spirituality with a special emphasis on the education of laypeople. Protestant Reformation began in 1517 with Martin Luther Originally, the word reformation (from the Latin reformare, "to renew") suggested the removal of impurities and corruption from church institutions and people, rather than separation from the unified Roman Catholic Church (the word catholic meaning "universal"). Pope Innocent X declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his apostolic brief Zelo Domus Dei. The various groups had their own juridical systems. For example, author Hans Hillerbrand estimated a total Protestant population of 833,457,000 in 2004. [45] Church authorities acknowledged that an individual might receive direct revelations from God under exceptional circumstances but maintained that a genuine revelation could not challenge traditional religious principles. [4] The end of the Reformation era is disputed among modern scholars. Although the plague abated, it returned from time to time. historians believe that the era of the Reformation came to a close when Catholic France allied itself with Protestant states against the Habsburg dynasty. Franz von Sickingen (d. 1523), an imperial knight from the Rhineland, formed an alliance with his peers against Richard von Greiffenklau zu Vollrads, Archbishop-elector of Trier (r.15111531), declaring that they wanted to lead the archbishop's subjects "to evangelical, light laws and Christian freedom". [note 5] The Waldensians were a notable exception. [citation needed]. [168] In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognised Henry as "the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England". The end of the English Reformation is a subject of debate. [187] Charles V did not wish to see Spain or the rest of Habsburg Europe divided, and in light of continual threat from the Ottomans, preferred to see the Roman Catholic Church reform itself from within. Among the prominent scholastics, Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) argued that reason could never be at variance with faith, and William of Ockham (d. 1349) concluded that human logic could not prove the existence of God. [note 10] Reformist bishops tried to discipline their clergy through regular canonical visitations in the local parishes and by issuing exhortations to errant clergymen. The pope was elected by high-ranking clergymen, the cardinals, and assisted by the professional staff of the Roman Curia. On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants, Bible translated into High German by Luther, Luther's translation of the Bible into High German, spread of literacy in early modern Germany, list of states by the date of adoption of the Reformation, adoption years for the Augsburg Confession, History of Austria Austria in the Reformation and Counter-Reformation (15171564), Reformation in Denmark-Norway and Holstein, Religion in Norway From Reformation to 1964, Religion in Sweden Lutheran Reformation, List of Protestant martyrs of the English Reformation, Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg, History of Spain Phillip II and the wars of religion, Timeline of Orthodoxy in Greece (14531821) cite ref-ZAKYTHINOS108 127-0, resistance theory in the Early Modern period, United States Declaration of Independence, The Reformation and its influence on church architecture, "Causes and Consequences of the Protestant Reformation", "An Economic Analysis of the Protestant Reformation", Malthus Meets Luther: the Economics Behind the German Reformation, "Multiplex Network Ties and the Spatial Diffusion of Radical Innovations: Martin Luther's Leadership in the Early Reformation", "Martin Luther, Bible Translation, and the German Language", "Media, Markets and Institutional Change: Evidence from the Protestant Reformation", "America's dark and not-very-distant history of hating Catholics", "The Church in Wales: The Protestant Reformation", "Primo Trubar v enciklopedijah in leksikonih I", "Nova odkritja o slovenski protestantiki", "Metaphysics as a Personal Adventure, by Norman Russell", "History of Europe | Summary, Wars, Map, Ideas, & Colonialism | Britannica", "protestant Origin and meaning of protestant by Online Etymology Dictionary", "Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact", "Under which conditions does religion affect educational outcomes? The latter settled mostly in Greater Poland around Leszno. French Protestantism, though its appeal increased under persecution, came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the conversions of nobles during the 1550s. Conflicts between religious enthusiasts and the representatives of the official Church could lead to the development of nonconformist groups but most of them disbanded after their founder died. [110] During his staged captivity, Luther completed the translation of the New Testament into High German. Luther publicly disagrees with other religious reformers on issues of theology. To understand the Protestant Reform movement, we need to go back in history to the early 16th century when there was only one church in Western Europe - what we would now call the Roman Catholic Church - under the leadership of the Pope in Rome. Cajetan, Eck and other papal officials drafted a papal bull that condemned Luther and his 41 theses. In parts of Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, a majority sympathised with the Radical Reformation despite intense persecution. The moderate Hussites, mainly Czech aristocrats and academics, were known as Utraquists for they offered the sacramental wine to the laymen during the Mass, stating that the Eucharist be administered sub utraque specie ("in both kinds"). A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as the Colloquy of Marburg, which has become infamous for its complete failure. The Radical Reformation was the response to what was believed to be the corruption in both the Roman Catholic Church and the Magisterial Reformation. Songs such as the Lutheran hymns or the Calvinist Psalter became tools for the spread of Protestant ideas and beliefs, as well as identity flags. [207] Some crypto-Protestants have been identified as late as the 19th century after immigrating to Latin America. On the other hand, he stated "If indulgences were preached according to the spirit and intention of the pope, all doubts would be readily resolved". When did the English Reformation end? | Homework.Study.com [note 15][69], Martin Luther (d. 1546), a professor of theology at the newly established University of Wittenberg in Saxony, was among those whom Tetzel's campaign outraged. A notable example was the Dominican nun Catherine of Siena (d. 1380) whose revelations convinced Pope Gregory XI to return his seat from Avignon to Rome. [73] By studying their Bibles, laypeople could come to the conclusion that the maintenance of the Church organization was unnecessary for their salvation. Some[who?] In 1563, the Brest Bible was published (see also Bible translations into Polish). [97] Here he explained his "theology of the Cross" about a loving God who had become frail and foolish to save fallen humanity, contrasting it with the scholastic "theology of glory" that celebrated erudition and human acts. [citation needed], Refused an annulment of his marriage to Catherine, King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome. The council made no important decisions, and was dissolved in 1517. The end of the Reformation era is disputed among modern scholars. The study argues that these social ties contributed more to the Reformation's early breakthroughs than the printing press. The Protestant Reformation (1517-1648) refers to the widespread religious, cultural, and social upheaval of 16th-century Europe that broke the hold of the medieval Church, allowing for the development of personal interpretations of the Christian message and leading to the development of modern nation-states. [172] In 1647, Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting any Jesuit Roman Catholic priests from entering territory under Puritan jurisdiction. Luther was taken to Frederick's castle of Wartburg. The Reformation was the start of Protestantism and the split of the Western Church into Protestantism and what is now the Roman Catholic Church. [142] In response to reports about the destruction and violence, Luther condemned the revolt in writings such as Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants; Zwingli and Melanchthon also did not condone the uprising. In the early 17th century internal theological conflict within the Calvinist church between two tendencies of Calvinism, the Gomarists and the liberal Arminians (or Remonstrants), resulted in Gomarist Calvinism becoming the de facto state religion. Like Many in the movement, Tami doesn't use the phrase New Apostolic Reformation, but she first encountered its kind of Christianity in 2015, when a friend gave her a book called Song of Songs . Higher public spending on schooling and better educational performance of military conscripts. [157] The exact moment Martin Luther realised the key doctrine of Justification by Faith is described in German as the Turmerlebnis. [135][136] Luther's influence had already reached Iceland before King Christian's decree. The adoption of Lutheranism was also one of the main reasons for the eruption of the Dacke War, a peasants uprising in Smland. [65], New religious movements promoted the deeper involvement of laity in religious practices. Portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger. One of his slogans famously claimed that "As soon as the coin into the box rings, a soul from purgatory to heaven springs". A Challenge to the Church in Rome. Other consequences included the dissolution of the monasteries, the . Despite heavy persecution by Henry II, the Reformed Church of France, largely Calvinist in direction, made steady progress across large sections of the nation, in the urban bourgeoisie and parts of the aristocracy, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment. [75] The system of papal dispensations became a principal obstacle to the implementation of reformist measures as the Holy See regularly granted immunities to those who did not want to execute them. [62] The systematic study of the Bible revealed that Jerome sometimes misinterpreted his sources of translation. Religious Warfare Across Europe During the Reformation In 2019, Christos Yannaras told Norman Russell that although he had participated in the Zo movement, he had come to regard it as Crypto-Protestant.[196]. The presence of bishoprics made the adoption of Protestantism less likely. Following the excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various churches in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. More prudent preparations paved the way for the Council of Constance under the auspices of the German king Sigismund of Luxemburg (r.14101437). The historian Thomas Kaufmann notes that students were especially effective "mobile agents in the distribution of Reformation ideas. [159][160] Ducal Prussia was followed by many imperial free cities and other minor imperial entities. The greatest geographical extent of Protestantism occurred at some point between 1545 and 1620. Background Calamities. Answer. Reformation 101 - The Protestant Reformation in Europe - ThoughtCo The Reformation first entered Poland through the mostly German-speaking areas in the country's north. [3] The spread of Gutenberg's printing press provided the means for the rapid dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. Different reformers arose more or less independently of Luther in 1518 (for example Andreas Karlstadt, Philip Melanchthon, Erhard Schnepf, Johannes Brenz and Martin Bucer) and in 1519 (for example Huldrych Zwingli, Nikolaus von Amsdorf, Ulrich von Hutten), and so on. [18] Aristocrats mainly supported their kins' church career because a bishop, abbot, abbess, or other prelate might possess remarkable wealth. English Reformation - Wikipedia English Reformation King Henry VIII, pioneer of the English Reformation, the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church and the conversion to Anglican Protestantism. Later, in a movement known as the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic church censored artists and writers in response to the Protestant Reformation. Both Catholics and Orthodox Christians converts became Calvinists and the Anti-Trinitarians. The Reformation spread throughout Europe beginning in 1517, reaching its peak between 1545 and 1620. Henry had once been a sincere Catholic and had even authored a book strongly criticising Luther. Similar attitudes developed among Catholics, who in turn encouraged the creation and use of music for religious purposes.[240]. Bagchi, David, and David C. Steinmetz, eds. They administered most sacraments to the local community of the faithful. The quality of the new Catholic schools was so great that Protestants willingly sent their children to these schools. [20], The papacy was "Europe's first major international power" (Chris Wickham) although its authority was based on a well organised system of communication and bureaucracy rather than armed forces. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. The Dominican friar Johann Tetzel (d. 1519), a leading figure in the campaign, applied unusually aggressive marketing methods. The Germans fished near Iceland's coast, and the Hanseatic League engaged in commerce with the Icelanders. [167] In 1539, the King sent a new governor to Iceland, Klaus von Mervitz, with a mandate to introduce reform and take possession of church property. Lower gender gap in school enrollment and literacy rates. This changed in 1534 with the Affair of the Placards. Counter-Reformation, also called Catholic Reformation or Catholic Revival, in the history of Christianity, the Roman Catholic efforts directed in the 16th and early 17th centuries both against the Protestant Reformation and toward internal renewal. The Protestant teachings of the Western Church were also briefly adopted within the Eastern Orthodox Church through the Greek Patriarch Cyril Lucaris in 1629 with the publishing of the Confessio (Calvinistic doctrine) in Geneva. [14] Laypeople could express their devotion through activities outsides the churches as well, such as participating in charitable associations known as confraternities, making pilgrimages to the saints' shrines,, or reciting the popular prayer cycle of the Rosary. Reformation | Causes & Effects | Britannica In the Ruthenian lands (predominately modern day Belarus & Ukraine) the Orthodox Church also undertook a similar strategy. The Commonwealth was unique in Europe in the 16th century for its widespread tolerance confirmed by the Warsaw Confederation. For instance, they read the Law of Moses in a symbolic or mystical sense because the Jewish ceremonies and laws were irrelevant for Christians. Fewer referendums on leisure, state intervention, and redistribution in Swiss cantons with more Protestants. These agreements limited papal authority over the national Churches in favor for the local rulers. The Habsburg-sanctioned Counter-Reformation efforts in the 17th century reconverted the majority of the kingdom to Catholicism. In contrast, ecclesiastical courts had exclusive jurisdiction over laypeople's marriage affairs and disputes over testaments. In Electoral Saxony the Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Saxony was organised and served as an example for other states, although Luther was not dogmatic on questions of polity. [citation needed]. Henry strongly wanted a male heir, and many of his subjects might have agreed, if only because they wanted to avoid another dynastic conflict like the Wars of the Roses. His execution led to a nationwide movement in Bohemia although his followers were divided into a moderate and a radical wing. [23] In the bull, Pope Boniface VIII (r.12941303) stated that only those who were obedient to the papacy could come to salvation. [115] Luther worked with the artist Lucas Cranach the Elder (d. 1553), who had a keen sense of visualising Luther's and his followers' message. In Knigsberg (now Kaliningrad), in 1530, a Polish-language edition of Luther's Small Catechism was published. [93] His fellow academics received the discussion paper from him privately. [note 14][82][83] The campaign's vulgarity shocked most serious-minded believers. On Chistmas Day 1521, he administered the Eucharist in common garment instead of priestly vestments; the next day he announced his engagement to a fifteen-year-old girl. On the eve of the Protestant Reformation, Christianity held the predominant position within the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and Catholicism received preferential treatment at the expense of the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox. In 1532, the Waldensians, who had been already present centuries before the Reformation, aligned themselves and adopted the Calvinist theology. His study On the Freedom of a Christian consolidated his thoughts about the inner freedom of believers with their obligation to care for their neighbours although he rejected the traditional teaching about good works. The early Puritan movement (late 16th17th centuries) was Reformed (or Calvinist) and was a movement for reform in the Church of England. The Eucharist, the central element of Christian worship, was also celebrated in Latin. In the more independent northwest, the rulers and priests, protected now by the Habsburg monarchy, which had taken the field to fight the Turks, defended the old Catholic faith. The ecumenical councils' theological decisions were binding to all Catholics. The two reformers' emphasis on the study of the Bible as the sole source of theology is often cited as an early example of the idea sola scriptura ("by the Scriptures alone") that became one of the basic principles of the Reformation. Tetzel allegedly sold a letter of indulgence for a future sin to a nobleman who later robbed him saying that this was the future sin for which he had payed to Tetzel. [203][204][note 23] Protestants have developed their own culture, with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts and many other fields. [154][note 21]. The presence of monasteries made the adoption of Protestantism less likely.
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